Protein kinase C peptides for use in withdrawal

ABSTRACT

A method for managing withdrawal from an addictive substance is described. The method involves administering one or more peptides having specific activity for the ε and/or γ isozyme of protein kinase C (PKC). The peptide(s) can be administered prior to, concurrent with, or subsequent to administration of the addictive substance. Also described is a kit having at least one container containing a peptide having isozyme-specific activity for εPKC or γPKC and instructions for use.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.10/428,280 filed May 1, 2003, now pending, which claims the benefit ofU.S. Provisional Application No. 60/377,331, filed May 1, 2002, nowabandoned, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This work was supported in part by The National Institutes of HealthGrant NIH NS13108. Accordingly the United States government may havecertain rights in this invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to compositions and methods of treatmentfor managing the withdrawal and/or reducing the dependence of patientson habit-forming and addictive drugs, such as alcohol, narcotics, andanti-depressants.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The repeated consumption of habit-forming drugs such as alcohol,tranquilizers, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogens and nicotine, in manyinstances leads to some degree of addiction. Typically, such addictionis characterized by a desire or even the need to continue use of thedrug and, in some cases, by a tendency to increase its dosage. Addictionresults in a psychological and physiological dependence on the effectsof such drugs and eventually has a detrimental effect on the addictedindividual. The prevalence of drug addiction is well accepted asimposing significant costs on society. Two main categories of motivationin addiction are the desire to experience the hedonic (e.g., rewarding)effects of the drug of abuse and the desire to avoid the anhedonia oraversive consequences of drug withdrawal.

Withdrawal from the use of habit-forming drugs is difficult and presentsa serious problem, in part due to the undesirable physical and/orpsychologic symptoms that accompany the abstention. Both the rewardingaspect and the aversive withdrawal aspect of addiction have beenstudied, the mechanism of opiate addiction in particular having beenreported upon. What becomes clear from the literature is that no singlebrain structure is entirely responsible for addiction and addictivebehaviors. Repeated use of opiates induces long lasting changes inneural pathways and neural processing in many brain regions includingbut not limited to the nucleus accumbens, the ventral tegmental area,basolateral amygdala, locus coeruleus, and the bed nucleus of the striaterminalis. Supraspinal brain areas are also subject to modulation byascending input from the spinal cord. There are profound effects ofopiates on spinal neurotransmission. Regardless of brain or spinal cordregion examined these long lasting changes include adaptation toneurotransmitter systems which include but are not limited toglutamatergic, dopaminergic, and adrenergic signaling. These adaptationsmay be involved in the reinforcing hedonic aspect of addiction as wellas in the aversive reinforcing aspect of addiction. Opiates act on threeclasses of receptors (μ, κ, δ) with the μ-opioid receptor subtype beingcritical for the rewarding and aversive effects of opiates. One specificexample of how opiates may mediate long lasting neuroadaptations ofneural pathways and neural processing is described below.

One mechanism by which physical dependence to opiates manifests involvesthe noradrenergic cells of the locus ceruleus. Opiates act as agonistsat inhibitory p receptors on these cells, thereby decreasing presynapticnorepinephrine release by the cells. Over time, this results in anup-regulation of postsynaptic norepinephrine receptor expression.Concurrently, morphine down-regulates the synthesis of beta-endorphin,the normal endogenous agonist at the inhibitory μ receptors. When theopiate is withdrawn, the cell, no longer being inhibited, releasesnorepinephrine presynaptically. At the same time, postsynapticsupersensitivity, which results from the increase in norepinephrinereceptors, leads to an amplification of the response, and an adrenergicstorm ensues. This adrenergic storm manifests as a craving for moreopiate, the ingestion of which re-starts and compounds the cycle.

The understanding of the central role of μ-opiate receptors in themechanism of opiate addiction has led to several abstinence-orientedstrategies to treat opiate addiction. One such abstinence-orientedstrategy involves the regular, typically twice weekly, administration ofnaltrexone, a potent, orally-effective, long-lasting μ-receptor blockingagent. In another abstinence-oriented treatment, the opiate-dependentindividual is maintained on buprenorphine. Because it is a partialμ-receptor agonist, buprenorphine has some slight reinforcingproperties, and its acceptability by the opiate-dependent individual ishigh, as is compliance. At the same time, because it has high affinityfor the μ-receptor, it blocks the effects of opiates and causes theopiate-dependent individual to stop seeking them.

Alcohol is another common drug of abuse, and a major public healthproblem worldwide. Few drugs exist that modulate the urge for alcoholintake and the molecular causes of alcoholism remain largelyuncharacterized. Disulfram (ANTABUSE®) was introduced in 1951 for thetreatment of alcoholism via inhibition of the enzyme aldehydedehydrogenase (involved in the metabolism of alcohol to acetic acid);the drug causes headaches, dizziness and vomiting in the presence ofalcohol, negatively reinforcing the urge for alcohol intake.Furthermore, administration of naltrexone, an opiate receptorantagonist, decreases alcohol self-administration in experimentalanimals and relapse in human alcoholics.

There is a continuing need for compounds that can alter consumptionbehavior by managing the withdrawal symptoms. Like opiates,neuroadaptations in many brain regions and neurotransmitter systemsunderlie the rewarding aspect and the aversive aspect of alcoholaddiction. Similarly, supraspinal brain areas are also subject tomodulation by ascending input from the spinal cord where alcohol exertsprofound effects on spinal neurotransmission.

Protein kinase C (PKC) is a family of isozymes heavily involved insignal transduction cascades. As a variety of PKC isozymes are locatedthroughout the neuroaxis (e.g., brain, spinal cord, and primary afferentneurons) and modulate actions downstream of neurotransmitters it islikely that PKC plays a role in the actions of drugs of abuse and in thegeneration of withdrawal symptoms. The PKC family of isozymes are keyenzymes in signal transduction involved in a variety of cellularfunctions, including cell growth, regulation of gene expression, and ionchannel activity.

The PKC family of isozymes includes at least eleven different proteinkinases that can be divided into at least three subfamilies based ontheir homology and sensitivity to activators. Members of the classicalor cPKC subfamily, α, β_(I), β_(II) and γPKC, contain four homologousdomains (C1, C2, C3 and C4) inter-spaced with isozyme-unique (variableor V) regions, and require calciumand diacylglycerol for activation.Members of the classical PKC family are found in the superficial laminaeof the dorsal horn in the spinal cord as well as in numerous brainregions. Members of the novel or nPKC subfamily, δ, ε, η, and θPKC, lackthe C2 homologous domain and do not require calcium for activation. PKCε is found in primary afferent neuron terminals that innervate thespinal cord as well as in numerous brain regions. Finally, members ofthe atypical or αPKC subfamily, ζ and λ/IPKC, lack both the C2 and onehalf of the C1 homologous domains and are insensitive to diacylglyceroland calcium.

Studies on the subcellular distribution of PKC isozymes demonstrate thatactivation of PKC results in its redistribution in the cells (alsotermed translocation), such that activated PKC isozymes associate withthe plasma membrane, cytoskeletal elements, nuclei, and othersubcellular compartments (Saito, N. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,86:3409-3413 (1989); Papadopoulos, V. and Hall, P. F. J. Cell Biol.,108:553-567 (1989); Mochly-Rosen, D., et al., Molec. Biol. Cell(formerly Cell Reg.), 1:693-706, (1990)). The unique cellular functionsof different PKC isozymes are determined by their subcellular location.For example, activated β_(I)PKC is found inside the nucleus, whereasactivated β_(II)PKC is found at the perinucleus and cell periphery ofcardiac myocytes (Disatnik, M. H., et al., Exp. Cell Res., 210:287-297(1994)). The localization of different PKC isozymes to different areasof the cell in turn appears due to binding of the activated isozymes tospecific anchoring molecules termed Receptors for Activated C-Kinase(RACKs). RACKs are thought to function by selectively anchoringactivated PKC isozymes to their respective subcellular sites. RACKs bindonly fully activated PKC and are not necessarily substrates of theenzyme. Nor is the binding to RACKs mediated via the catalytic domain ofthe kinase (Mochly-Rosen, D., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,88:3997-4000 (1991)). Translocation of PKC reflects binding of theactivated enzyme to RACKs anchored to the cell particulate fraction andthe binding to RACKs is required for PKC to produce its cellularresponses (Mochly-Rosen, D., et al., Science, 268:247-251 (1995)).Inhibition of PKC binding to RACKs in vivo inhibits PKC translocationand PKC-mediated function (Johnson, J. A., et al., J. Biol. Chem,271:24962-24966 (1996a); Ron, D., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,92:492-496 (1995); Smith, B. L. and Mochly-Rosen, D., Biochem. Biophys.Res. Commun., 188:1235-1240 (1992)).

In general, translocation of PKC is required for proper function of PKCisozymes. Peptides that mimic either the PKC-binding site on RACKs(Mochly-Rosen, D., et al., J. Biol. Chem., 226:1466-1468 (1991a);Mochly-Rosen, D., et al., supra, 1995) or the RACK-binding site on PKC(Ron, et al., supra, 1995; Johnson, J. A., et al., supra, 1996a) areisozyme-specific translocation inhibitors of PKC that selectivelyinhibit the function of the enzyme in vivo.

Agents capable of decreasing or overcoming such addiction and, ifpossible, alleviating or removing the symptoms related to the withdrawalof habit-forming and addictive drugs are desired by both personssuffering from addiction and by society in general. Inhibitors of PKCmay be a class of such agents.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect the invention includes a method for alleviating symptomsassociated with withdrawal from a habit-forming drug, comprisingadministering a peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitory activity forγPKC or εPKC.

In one embodiment, the peptide is administered prior to, during, orsubsequent to delivery of the habit-forming drug.

In another embodiment, the peptide has a sequence identified herein asSEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:2. In other embodiments, the peptide has asequence selected from the group of sequences identified herein as SEQID NO:4-SEQ ID NO:14.

The peptide, in other embodiments, is formulated for intracellulardelivery. For example, the peptide is conjugated to a carrier or isadmixed with a formulation capable of intracellular delivery.

The habit-forming drug is an opioid, alcohol, or nicotine, in otherembodiments of the invention.

In another aspect, the invention includes a method for alleviatingsymptoms associated with withdrawal from a habit-forming drug,comprising administering a peptide having isozyme-specific activity forεPKC prior to or concurrent with delivery of the narcotic; andadministering a peptide having isozyme-specific activity for γPKCsubsequent to delivery of the habit-forming drug.

In one embodiment, the peptide having isozyme-specific activity for εPKChas a sequence identified herein as SEQ ID NO:1. In another embodiment,the peptide having isozyme-specific activity for γPKC has a sequenceidentified herein as SEQ ID NO:2.

Administration of the peptide(s) is by injection, in one embodiment.

In yet another aspect, the invention includes kit for alleviatingsymptoms associated with withdrawal from an addictive agent, comprising(i) at least one container containing a peptide having isozyme-specificinhibitory activity for γPKC or εPCK; and (ii) instructions for use.

In one embodiment, the kit is comprised of a first container containinga peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitory activity for εPKC.

In another embodiment; the kit includes a second container containing apeptide having isozyme-specific inhibitory activity for γPKC.

The peptide in the kit, in one embodiment, has a sequence identifiedherein by SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:2.

In one embodiment, the kit's instructions direct a user to administerthe peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitory activity for εPKC priorto or concurrent with administration of an addictive agent.

In another embodiment, the kit's instructions direct a user toadminister the peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitory activity forγPKC after administration of an addictive agent.

In another embodiment, the kit further includes at least one syringesuitable for injecting the peptide.

An additional aspect includes the use of the peptide inhibitors in thepreparation of a medicament for use in managing the withdrawal fromand/or reducing the dependence on addictive drugs.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1C show naloxone-precipitated hyperresponsiveness of the invitro slow ventral root potential (sVRP) of the isolated spinal cordbefore (FIG. 1A) and during (FIG. 1B) opioid exposure, and followingtreatment with naloxone, an opioid antagonist (FIG. 1C).

FIG. 1D is a plot of the area under the curve of the sVRP as a functionof time, in minutes, to show the time course of morphine depression andnaloxone-precipitated hyperresponsiveness. The bars indicate the time ofapplication of morphine and naloxone to the isolated spinal cord.

FIGS. 2A-2D are plots showing the area under the curve of the slowventral root potential (sVRP) as a function of time, in minutes,following application of various non-specific PKC inhibitors: the broadspectrum inhibitor GF109203X in the presence (FIG. 2A) and absence (FIG.2C) of morphine; and an inhibitor specific to Ca⁺⁺-dependent PKCisoforms, Go6976 in the presence (FIG. 2B) and absence (FIG. 2D) ofmorphine.

FIGS. 3A-3B are plots showing the area under the curve of the slowventral root potential (sVRP) as a function of time, in minutes,following application of morphine and naloxone in the presence ofTat-conjugated PKC ε-specific peptide inhibitor εV1-2 (FIG. 3A, closedsquares) or Tat alone (FIG. 3A, open circles); and following applicationof the Tat-conjugated PKC ε inhibitor alone in the absence of morphine(FIG. 3B).

FIGS. 3C-3D are plots showing the area under the curve of the slowventral root potential (sVRP) as a function of time, in minutes,following application of morphine and naloxone in the presence ofTat-conjugated PKC γ isozyme-specific antagonist γV5-3 (FIG. 3C, closedsquares) or Tat carrier alone (FIG. 3C, open circles); and followingapplication of the Tat-conjugated γPKC antagonist γV5-3 in the absenceof morphine (FIG. 3D).

FIGS. 4A-4B are plots of average mechanical threshold, in grams, (FIG.4A) and of average thermal response latency, in seconds, (FIG. 4B) as afunction of time post application of naloxone or saline. Naloxone orsaline (vertical striped bars and cross-hatched bars, respectively) wasadministered 30 minutes after delivery of morphine to postnatal day 7rats. Naloxone or saline (dotted bars and open bars) were administeredto animals not treated with morphine as controls. The dotted linerepresents the average baseline mechanical threshold.

FIG. 5A shows the experimental protocol for the data reported in FIGS.5B-5C where animals were treated with a PKC inhibitor prior to deliveryof morphine; naloxone was administered 30 minutes after morphinedelivery; and mechanical threshold and thermal response latency testingwere done at 10 minute intervals after naloxone administration.

FIGS. 5B-5C are plots of average mechanical threshold, in grams, (FIG.5B) and of average thermal response latency, in seconds, (FIG. 5C) as afunction of time post application of naloxone or saline for animalstreated according to the protocol shown in FIG. 5A, for animals treatedwith Tat-conjugated PKC ε (vertical striped bars), Tat-conjugated γ PKC(cross hatched bars), Tat carrier alone (dotted bars), or saline (openbars) administered intrathecally immediately before morphine. The dottedline represents the average baseline threshold.

FIG. 6A shows the experimental protocol for the data reported in FIGS.6B-6C where animals were treated with a PKC inhibitor 2.5 hourssubsequent to delivery of morphine; and mechanical threshold and thermalresponse latency testing were done at hourly intervals after peptideadministration.

FIGS. 6B-6C are plots of average mechanical threshold, in grams, (FIG.6B) and of average thermal response latency, in seconds, (FIG. 6C) as afunction of time post application of morphine for animals treatedaccording to the protocol shown in FIG. 5A, for animals treated withTat-conjugated PKC ε (vertical striped bars), Tat-conjugated γ PKC(cross hatched bars), Tat carrier alone (dotted bars), or saline (openbars) administered intrathecally immediately before morphine. The dottedline represents the average baseline threshold.

FIG. 7A is a schematic diagram of a lumbar spinal cord slice for testingof alcohol-induced withdrawal hyperresponsiveness inN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor currents.

FIG. 7B shows an individual trace elicited from a lumbar spinal cordslice motor neuron before (control) and after application of the NMDAantagonist 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV).

FIG. 8A-8C are traces from an NMDA-evoked current in a motor neuronbefore (control, FIG. 8A), during (FIG. 8B), and after (FIG. 8C)alcohol-induced withdrawal.

FIGS. 8D-8E are plots showing the normalized NMDA current (I_(NMDA))Area as a function of time (FIG. 8D) and the NMDA current area (as apercent of control) following application of alcohol (EtOH) to a lumbarspinal cord slice motor neuron and following wash with artificialcerebrospinal fluid (FIG. 8E).

FIGS. 9A-9C are traces from an NMDA-evoked current in a motor neuronbefore (control, FIG. 8A), during (FIG. 8B), and after (FIG. 8C)application of alcohol (EtOH) in the presence of a calcium chelatingagent BAPTA (1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid).

FIGS. 9D-9E are plots showing the normalized NMDA current (I_(NMDA))Area as a function of time (FIG. 9D) and the NMDA current area (as apercent of control) following application of alcohol (EtOH) in thepresence of BAPTA to a lumbar spinal cord slice motor neuron andfollowing wash with artificial cerebrospinal fluid (FIG. 9E).

FIG. 10 is a bar graph showing the number of cells having γPKC localizedin the nucleus before (control) application of ethanol, after ethanolapplication, after washing with artificial cerebrospinal fluid, and inthe presence of γPKC V5-3 peptide inhibitor.

FIGS. 11A-11F show the results of NMDA-induced currents in spinal cordsections in the presence of alcohol and the γV5-3 PKC peptide inhibitor(SEQ ID NO:2), where FIGS. 11A, 11C, and 11F are plots of normalizedNMDA current (I_(NMDA)) Area as a function of time before, during andafter application of ethanol in the presence of 2 nM γV5-3 peptide (FIG.11A), 5-10 nM γV5-3 peptide (FIG. 11C), and 10 nM Tat carrier peptidealone (FIG. 11E); FIGS. 11B, 11D, and 11F are histograms correspondingto FIGS. 11A, 11C, and 11F, respectively.

FIGS. 12A-12B are plots showing the threshhold withdrawal force, ingrams, as a function of time post injection of ethanol, in hours, at 0.5g/kg (closed circles) and at 4 g/kg (stars) or post injection of saline(open circles) for 7 day old (FIG. 12A) and 21 day old (FIG. 12B) ratpups.

FIGS. 13A-13B are bar graphs showing the thermal paw withdrawallatencies in 7 day old rat pups (FIG. 13A) and 21 day old rat pups (FIG.13B) exposed to a single dose of ethanol (dotted bars) or to saline(control, open bars).

FIGS. 14A-14B are plots of the ethanol level in blood (μg ethanol/mLblood; FIG. 14A) and of the ethanol concentration in the spinal cord (μgethanol/mg tissue) for 7 day old (closed circles) and 21 day old ratpups (open circles) as a function of time post ethanol injection.

FIGS. 15A-15D are bar graphs showing the threshold withdrawal force, ingrams, at various times post-ethanol injection (FIGS. 15A, 15C) orpost-saline injection (control, FIGS. 15B, 15D) for 7 day old rat pups(FIGS. 15A, 15B) treated with εV1-2 (dotted bars), γV5-3 (verticalstriped bars), or Tat alone (open bars) and for 21 day old rat pups(FIGS. 15C, 15D) similarly treated.

FIGS. 16A-16B are bar graphs showing the paw withdrawal latency, inseconds, for 7 day old rat pups as a function of time post-ethanol (FIG.16A) or post-saline (FIG. 16B) injection. At the 4 hour time point a PKCinhibitor peptide, εPKC V1-2 (SEQ ID NO:1; dotted bars) or γPKC V5-3(SEQ ID NO:2, vertical striped bars), or Tat carrier peptide alone (SEQID NO:3, open bars) was administered intrathecally.

These and other objects and features of the invention will be more fullyappreciated when the following detailed description of the invention isread in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCES

SEQ ID NO:1 is an εPKC antagonist peptide.

SEQ ID NO:2 is a peptide inhibitor of the γ isozyme of PKC.

SEQ ID NO:3 is a Tat-derived carrier peptide (Tat 47-57).

SEQ ID NO:4 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:5 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:6 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:7 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:8 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:9 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:10 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2

SEQ ID NO:11 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2

SEQ ID NO:12 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:13 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:14 is a modification of SEQ ID NO:2.

SEQ ID NO:15 is the Drosophila Antennapedia homeodomain-derived carrierpeptide.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. DEFINITIONS

Abbreviations for amino acid residues are the standard 3-letter and/or1-letter codes used in the art to refer to one of the 20 common L-aminoacids.

“Conservative amino acid substitutions” are substitutions which do notresult in a significant change in the activity or tertiary structure ofa selected polypeptide or protein. Such substitutions typically involvereplacing a selected amino acid residue with a different residue havingsimilar physico-chemical properties. For example, substitution of Glufor Asp is considered a conservative substitution since both aresimilarly-sized negatively-charged amino acids. Groupings of amino acidsby physico-chemical properties are known to those of skill in the art.

“Peptide” and “polypeptide” are used interchangeably herein and refer toa compound made up of a chain of amino acid residues linked by peptidebonds. Unless otherwise indicated, the sequence for peptides is given inthe order from the amino terminus to the carboxyl terminus.

The term “narcotic” as used herein intends the meaning set forth instandard medical reference works, such as the “more recent” definitionsused in Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 26th edition (Williams & WilkinsPubI., Baltimore, 1995) and in the “Analgesics” chapter in the “DrugEvaluations” subscription service published by the American MedicalAssociation (Chicago). Briefly, “narcotics” as used in any definition(either classical or recent) includes: (1) opiate drugs, defined as anypreparation or derivative of opium, a natural mixture derived from poppyplants that includes a number of medically important and/orhabit-forming or addictive drugs, including morphine, codeine,noscapine, papaverine, thebaine, and heroin; and, (2) opioid drugs,which includes opiates as well as various synthetic narcotic drugshaving similar or related chemical structures and effects. Exemplarysynthetic narcotics include (DEMEROL™), hydrocodone (VICODIN™),hydromorphone (DILAUDID™), propoxyphene (DARVON™), oxycodone (PERCODAN™when mixed with aspirin, or PERCOCET™ when mixed with acetaminophen),levorphanol, fentanyl, and methadone.

A drug is typically classified as a “narcotic”, if its effects include:(1) the ability to induce “significant alteration of mood and behavior”;(2) the ability to induce a condition of “stuporous analgesia”; and (3)a substantial risk of dependence, tolerance, and/or addiction.

More generally, “habit-forming drugs” as used herein refer to variousagents such as alcohol; minor tranquilizers such as barbiturates, e.g.pentobarbital, and benzodiazepines, e.g. librium, valium; stimulantia,e.g. cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine; narcotics, including opiates,such as fentanyl, alfentanyl and heroine; and hallucinogens, such asLSD; either in pure form or in admixture; tobacco; hashish; marijuana;and the like.

Individuals suffering from an “addiction” are identified by, forexample, the presence of any one or more of a number of undesiredsymptoms upon abstinence of the drug. Typical symptoms accompanyingwithdrawal or abstention of habit-forming drugs can include a generalfeeling of discomfort, headache, tremor, anxiety, hallucinations,nausea, vomiting and the like, and in particular a continuous desire orlonging for the habit-forming drug having caused the addiction.

“Managing, attenuating, or alleviating the symptoms of withdrawal”intends a perceptible reduction by the subject in one or more of thesymptoms associated with withdrawal from a particular addictive agent,including but not limited to symptoms of allodynia (nociceptive responseto a normally innocuous stimulus), hyperalgesia (exaggerated response toa noxious stimulus), headache, tremor, anxiety, hallucinations, nausea,vomiting, and a continuous desire or longing for the habit-forming drughaving caused the addiction.

II. COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR MANAGING WITHDRAWAL

The present invention is premised upon the discovery that ε and γprotein kinase C are involved in the mechanism of withdrawal fromhabit-forming and addictive drugs, and that their selective inhibitioncan alleviate or remove the symptoms related to withdrawal.

1. Morphine Withdrawal

The slow ventral root potential (sVRP) is an electrophysiolgicalmeasurement of nociceptive-related response in the spinal cord lastingapproximately 40 seconds (Yanagisawa et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol,106:231-239 (1984); Akagi H. et al., British J. Pharmacol., 84:663-673(1985); Otsuka M. et al., J. Physiol., 395:255-270 (1988)). It is evokedby stimulation of a lumbar dorsal root at an intensity sufficient toactivate small diameter afferents that transmit nociceptive (painful)stimuli from the periphery to the spinal cord (Lozier A. P. et al., J.Neurophysiol., 74:1001-1009 (1995)). Isolated spinal cords can be usedto characterize the in vitro nociceptive hyperresponsiveness of opiatewithdrawal since in this model withdrawal to opioids is displayed as anincrease in the nociceptive-related slow ventral root potential (sVRP)to a level above control when, for example, the μ-opioid receptoragonist morphine is followed by administration of the opioid antagonistnaloxone. Thus, the sVRP is related to pain, and its exaggerationfollowing naloxone is a manifestation of withdrawal which translates toan increase in pain sensation in vivo.

As described in Example 1, neonatal rat spinal cords were isolated from5-7 day old rats and arranged for measurement of sVRP. FIGS. 1A-1C showthe initial sVRP (FIG. 1A) of the isolated spinal cords, during exposureto morphine (FIG. 1B) and then to naloxone (FIG. 1C). The sVRP isdepressed by morphine and recovers to levels significantly above controlon administration of naloxone. Thirty min following the application ofnaloxone the area of the sVRP was 140.9% of control ±10.12 (mean ±SEM)(P<0.001). The hyperresponsiveness persisted for at least an hour.

FIG. 1D shows the time course of morphine depression andnaloxone-precipitated hyperresponsiveness by plotting the area under thecurve of each individual sVRP trace as a function of time, in minutes.The bars indicate the time of application of morphine and naloxone tothe isolated spinal cord. The depression in sVRP due to administrationof morphine and the hyperresponsiveness upon application of naloxone isapparent.

Having established the use and validity of this model for characterizingthe naloxone-precipitated nociceptive response, the effect of variousPKC antagonists/inhibitors on the hyperresponsiveness was evaluated.FIGS. 2A-2D are plots showing the slow ventral root potential (sVRP) asa function of time, in minutes, following application of variousnon-specific PKC inhibitors: the broad spectrum inhibitor GF109203X inthe presence (FIG. 2A) and absence (FIG. 2C) of morphine; and aninhibitor specific to Ca⁺⁺-dependent PKC isoforms, Go6976 in thepresence (FIG. 2B) and absence (FIG. 2D) of morphine. The PKC antagonistGF109203X blocked the withdrawal hyperresponsivess (FIG. 2A), asevidenced by the result that at 30 minutes following naloxone sVRP areawas 87% (±9.8%) of control. This was not significantly different fromcontrol but was significantly different from the exaggerated responsefollowing naloxone without the antagonist. The PKC antagonist Go6976 didnot block withdrawal (FIG. 2B) since mean sVRP area 30 minutes afternaloxone was 127.4% (±5.5%) of control, a value not significantlydifferent from naloxone alone. Neither inhibitor alone altered the sVRP(FIGS. 2C-2D).

In another study conducted according to the procedure set forth inExample 1, the PKC isozyme specific antagonists εPKC V1-2 (SEQ ID NO:1)and γPKC V5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2) were applied to the isolated spinal cords.The results for the εPKC antagonist are shown in FIGS. 3A-3B. FIG. 3Ashows the slow ventral root potential (sVRP) area as a function of timefollowing application of morphine and naloxone in the presence ofTat-conjugated PKC ε-specific peptide inhibitor εV1-2 (closed squares)or Tat alone (open circles; SEQ ID NO:3). The Tat-conjugated εPKC V1-2peptide blocked withdrawal hyperresponsiveness, as seen by the resultthat sVRP area 30 minutes after naloxone administration was 102% ofcontrol. In contrast, the Tat peptide alone (open circles) did not blockthe withdrawal response. FIG. 6B shows that in the absence of morphineεPKC V1-2 did not alter the sVRP.

The results for administration of the γPKC antagonist γV5-3 are shown inFIGS. 3C-3D. γPKC V5-3 (closed squares) reduced withdrawalhyperresponsiveness, but not to a significantly greater amount than theTat carrier vehicle alone (open circles; FIG. 6C) suggesting that theapparent reduction in withdrawal associated with the PKC γ inhibitor isdue to the Tat carrier peptide. This finding agrees with thenon-specific inhibitor findings that the global PKC antagonist GF109293X (FIG. 2A), but not a Ca2+ dependent antagonist Go6976 (FIG. 2B),blocked withdrawal hyperreponsiveness following a 30 minute exposure tomorphine. FIG. 3D shows that in the absence of morphine and naloxone,γPKC V5-3 did not significantly altered the sVRP.

In another group of animals, the effect of the non-specific PKCantagonist chelerythrine was studied. Chelerythrine administered tomorphine-exposed spinal cords did not alter the response to morphine(results not shown). However, chelerythrine did block morphinewithdrawal, as evidenced by the sVRP response following naloxone incombination with chelerythrine of 100.1% of control (data not shown).

These studies demonstrate that naloxone-precipitated withdrawalhyperresponsiveness in the spinal cord requires activation of εPCK. Inisolated spinal cords subject to a brief morphine exposure in vitro PKCinhibitors specific for εPKC prevented the increase in sVRP that followsnaloxone treatment. As will be shown below from the in vivo studies,morphine withdrawal also involves the γ isozyme of PKC, but at differenttime points than used in the in vitro studies.

In vivo studies on opiate withdrawal allodynia and hyperalgesia wereconducted using postnatal day 7 rats. As described in Example 2,postnatal day 7 rats were given morphine subcutaneously followed 30minutes later by naloxone or saline. Mechanical threshold using von Freyfilaments to produce the flexion withdrawal response of the hind paw andthermal stimulation to measure the paw withdrawal latency were measuredas described in Example 2. FIG. 4A shows the results of the mechanicalthreshold test and FIG. 4B shows the results of the thermal pawwithdrawal latency test. Neonatal rats given morphine exhibited profoundanalgesia manifested as increased paw withdrawal thresholds toincreasing mechanical pressure using von Frey filaments and increasedpaw withdrawal latency to thermal stimulation (cross hatched bars, FIGS.4A-4B). Administration of the opioid antagonist naloxone following 30minutes of morphine exposure (vertical-striped bars) precipitatedmechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, manifested as decreasedmechanical threshold or a shorter paw withdrawal latency, respectively,compared to baseline pre-morphine measures (e.g., increased painsensitivity to both noxious and non-noxious stimuli upon withdrawal frommorphine). Naloxone alone (dotted bars) did not alter paw withdrawalthresholds to mechanical stimulation or paw withdrawal latency tothermal stimulation.

FIG. 5A illustrates a treatment protocol where rat pups were given a PKCantagonist intrathecally (e.g., directly into the cerebrospinal fluidsurrounding the spinal cord) prior to subcutaneous morphine delivery.Thirty minutes after morphine delivery, naloxone was administered,followed by mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia testing (asdescribed in Example 2). The results are shown in FIGS. 5B-5C.

FIG. 5B shows the average mechanical threshold, in grams, as a functionof time post application of naloxone saline for animals treatedaccording to the protocol shown in FIG. 5A with εPKC V1-2 (SEQ ID NO:1;vertical-striped bars), γPKC V5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2; cross-hatched bars), Tatcarrier alone (SEQ ID NO:3; dotted bars) or saline (open bars). FIG. 5Cis a similar plot for the average thermal response latency test. Thedata shows that Tat-conjugated PKC εV1-2 (vertical-striped bars)administered prior to morphine delivery was effective to blocknaloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal allodyina and hyperalgesia(e.g., PKC ε mediates withdrawal induced sensitization of painpathways). Pretreatment with Tat-conjugated γPKC V5-3 (cross-hatchedbars) had a smaller blocking effect. The Tat carrier alone (dotted bars)and saline (open bars) did not prevent allodynia and hyperalgesia.

Another study was performed to investigate the roles of PKC isozymes innatural withdrawal, which more closely resembles the clinical setting inaddictive sequela. In this study, postnatal day 7 rats were given asingle injection of morphine (1 mg/kg) and allowed to undergo naturalwithdrawal, i.e., naloxone was not administered to precipitatewithdrawal. The treatment protocol is shown in FIG. 6A, where 2.5 hoursafter morphine delivery, εV1-2 or γV5-3 peptide inhibitors wereadministered intrathecally. Mechanical allodynia and thermalhyperalgesia were evaluated at hourly intervals according to theprocedure described in Example 2. The results are shown in FIGS. 6B-6C.

FIG. 6B shows the results for the mechanical threshold test and of FIG.6C shows the results of the thermal response latency. Animals weretreated with Tat-conjugated PKC ε (SEQ ID NO:1; vertical-striped bars),Tat-conjugated γPKC (SEQ ID NO:2, cross hatched bars), Tat carrier alone(SEQ ID NO:3, dotted bars), or saline (open bars), each administeredintrathecally immediately before morphine delivery. The rats developedmechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia as a result of withdrawal(see saline treated animals, open bars). Administration of γV5-3(cross-hatched bars) attenuated mechanical allodynia and thermalhyperalgesia during natural withdrawal from morphine (p<0.05 for γV5-3versus Tat carrier alone (dotted bars) or saline (open bars)).

The data in FIGS. 5-6 show a temporal relationship of the PKC isozymes εand γ in blocking the in vivo withdrawal response. εPKC peptideantagonists were effective to prevent naloxone-precipitated mechanicalallodynia and thermal hypersensitivity in vivo and the exaggeratednociceptive spinal response in vitro due to morphine exposure. The εV1-2peptide was most effective when administered prior to morphine exposure.γPKC peptide antagonists were effective to attenuate the withdrawalsymptoms when administered after morphine exposure, and were mosteffective after a longer morphine exposure time (FIGS. 6B-6C). From thistemporal relationship, morphine exposure appears to produce an earlyphase of PKC ε-dependent primary afferent sensitization leading to anincrease in transmitter release, followed by a later phase involving PKCγ-dependent spinal sensitization.

Thus, the invention contemplates administration of an εPKC antagonist ora γPKC antagonist for management of opioid withdrawal hyperalgesia in asubject. In particular, an εPKC antagonist can be administered prior to,concurrent with, or shortly after delivery of the opioid to alleviatethe allodynia and hyperalgesia associated with withdrawal. A γPKCantagonist is preferably administered subsequent to opioid delivery, andmost preferably an hour or more after opioid delivery, to alleviate theallodynia and hyperalgesia associated with withdrawal. A combinationtherapy is also contemplated, where an εPKC antagonist is administeredprior to, concurrent with, or shortly after delivery of the opioidfollowed by delivery of a γPKC antagonist after delivery of the opioid.That is, if the εPKC antagonist is administered shortly after opioiddelivery, the γPKC antagonist can be administered concurrent with theεPKC antagonist or subsequent to administration of the εPKC antagonist.

2. Alcohol Withdrawal

Alcohol withdrawal symptoms contribute to addiction to alcohol(alcoholism) and pose a serious clinical problem. Studies were performedto demonstrate the ability of peptides specific for the ε and γ isozymesof PKC to alleviate the symptoms of withdrawal from alcohol. The studiesincluded characterizing the ability of γPKC peptides to mediate alcoholwithdrawal hyperresponsiveness of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptorcurrents mediated by glutamatergic neurotransmission in neonatal ratspinal cord motor neurons and the ability of εPKC and γPKC peptideinhibitors to attenuate withdrawal symptoms in young rats. These studieswill now be described.

a. In Vitro Studies

Spinal cords were taken from young rats, and slices of these cords weremade and placed in artificial cerebrospinal fluid for patch clampelectrophysiological analysis, to characterize the ability of γPKCpeptides to mediate alcohol withdrawal hyperresponsiveness ofN-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor currents. FIG. 7A is a schematicdiagram of the technique, where a lumbar spinal cord slice 10 is shown.The placement of a recording electrode 12 and a pipette 14 forapplication of NMDA relative to a motor neuron 16 is illustrated. FIG.7B shows an individual trace elicited from the cord slice motor neuronbefore (control) and after application of the NMDA antagonist2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV).

FIG. 8A-8C are traces from an NMDA-evoked current in a motor neuronbefore (control, FIG. 8A), during (FIG. 8B), and after (FIG. 8C)alcohol-induced withdrawal. The time-course of the effect of alcohol(EtOH) on the area of NMDA-evoked currents is shown in FIG. 8D, wherethe bar in the figure denotes the time of alcohol appliction. Thenormalized NMDA current (I_(NMDA)) area increases after application ofalcohol (EtOH) to lumbar spinal cord slice motor neurons (n=11).

FIG. 8E is a histogram showing withdrawal hyperresponsiveness of thesame lumbar spinal cord slice motor neurons (n=11) as in FIG. 8D. TheNMDA-induced currents were measured 18 minutes after alcohol (100 mM)and wash (artificial cerebrospinal fluid) were applied. The increase inNMDA-induced current over the control level following application ofethanol is indicative of ethanol-induced withdrawal hyperresponsiveness.

The ethanol withdrawal hyperresponsiveness is calcium dependent, asshown by the data presented in FIGS. 9A-9E. FIGS. 9A-9C are traces froman NMDA-evoked current in a motor neuron before (control, FIG. 8A),during (FIG. 8B), and after (FIG. 8C) application of alcohol (EtOH) inthe presence of a calcium chelating agent BAPTA(1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid). Theindividual traces from a motor neuron show no ethanol-withdrawalhyperresponsiveness when the recording pipette contains 30 mM of thecalcium chelating agent BAPTA. FIG. 9D shows the time course of the meaneffects of ethanol on the area of NMDA-evoked currents (n=8) in thepresence of intracellular BAPTA. The bar indicates the time period ofapplication of ethanol, and as seen, after cessation of ethanolapplication, the current returned to the control level. FIG. 9E is ahistogram showing that in the presence of a calcium chelating agent,hyperreponsiveness subsequent to ethanol administration is not observed.

Fluorescence immunocytochemical studies were performed on the spinalcord sections, as described in Example 3. The sections were incubatedwith an anti-γPKC antibody and an anti-neuronal antibody to identifyneurons. After washing the sections were labeled withfluorescein-labeled secondary antibodies and observed via laser confocalmicroscopy. While not shown here, visualization of the spinal cordsections showed an abundance of γPKC in ventral horn neurons and thatethanol reversibly induced translocation of γPKC from the nucleus to thecytoplasm. Translocation of γPKC was quantified by counting the numberof cells with γPKC localized to the nucleus before (control) and afterapplication of ethanol, as well as after washing with artificialcerebrospinal fluid. Translocation in the presence of the γPKCisozyme-specific peptide V5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2) was also evaluated byadministering the γPKC V5-3 peptide to the sections and, 20 minuteslater, administering ethanol. Two to three sections per animal werecounted. The results are shown in FIG. 10.

FIG. 10 is a bar graph showing the number of cells having γPKC localizedin the nucleus. As seen, prior to ethanol application, about 14 cellswere counted as having γPKC localized in the nucleus. After applicationof ethanol to the spinal cord sections, the number of cells having γPKClocalized in the nucleus decreased to about 6, consistent with thevisual observation that ethanol induced translocation of γPKC from thenucleus to the cytoplasm. The translocation was reversible, as evidencedby the increase in cells having γPKC localized in the nucleus followingwash with artificial cerebrospinal fluid. The presence of γPKCisozyme-specific peptide V5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2), applied prior to ethanolexposure, was effective to block γPKC translocation to the cytoplasm, asevidenced by the number of cells having γPKC in the nucleus remaining atthe control value of about 14.

FIGS. 11A-11F show the results of NMDA-induced currents in spinal cordsections in the presence of alcohol and the γV5-3 PKC peptide inhibitor(SEQ ID NO:2). FIGS. 11A-11B show the effect of ethanol on NMDA-evokedcurrents in the presence of 2 nm γPKC V5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2). FIG. 11A is aplot of the normalized NMDA-induced current area as a function of time,where the bar indicates the 15 minute time period for application ofethanol (100 mM). After ethanol application, the spinal cord section waswashed with artificial cerebrospinal fluid. FIG. 11B is thecorresponding histogram. At a dose of 2 nM, the γPKC peptide inhibitorV5-3 did not completely block withdrawal hyperresponsiveness. However,at a dose of 5-10 nM, the peptide effectively blocked ethanol withdrawalhyperresponsiveness, as seen by the data presented in FIGS. 11C-11D.FIGS. 11E-11F shows the effect of 10 nM Tat carrier alone on ethanolwithdrawal hyperresponsiveness, where it is seen that the carrierpeptide does not prevent the symptom.

In summary, the data in FIGS. 7-11 show that ethanol withdrawalhyperresponsiveness of NMDA-evoked currents is a calcium dependentphenomenon γPKC is a calcium-dependent isozyme. Neonatal rat spinal cordventral horn displays abundant γPKC isozyme which is activated byethanol to translocate from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. A γPKC isozymespecific peptide, such as SEQ ID NO:2, is effective to block thetranslocation, thus attenuating or blocking the ethanol withdrawalhyperresponsiveness.

b. In Vivo Studies

In vivo studies were conducted using young rats to determine the effectof peptides specific for the ε and γ PKC isozymes on ethanolwithdrawal-induced allodynia and hyperalgesia. As detailed in Example 4,7 day old and 21 day old rats were given ethanol by intraperitonealinjection. The rats were subjected to mechanical allodynia testing (vonFrey hair stimulation) and thermal hyperalgesia (thermal paw withdrawallatencies) at defined intervals after ethanol administration. A baselinetest was conducted prior to ethanol treatment to establish a zero timevalue.

The results for the mechanical allodynia testing are shown in FIGS.12A-12B for 7 day old pups (FIG. 12A) and 21 day old pups (FIG. 12B).The threshold withdrawal force in grams on the y-axis is defined as thelog of 10 times the force in milligrams required to bend the von Freyfiber. Postnatal day 7 rats, treated with 4 g/kg 15% EtOH (starsymbols), exhibited a slight but insignificant increase in thresholdwithdrawal force (e.g., analgesia) at the two hour test interval. At 6hours and 8 hours post-ethanol injection the 7 day old rats exhibitedmechanical allodynia as manifested by a decrease in paw thresholdwithdrawal force compared to saline controls (FIG. 12A). Administrationof 1 g/kg 15% EtOH (closed squares) did not significantly alter thethreshold withdrawal force. Baseline threshold withdrawal force, asestablished using pups injected with saline (open circles), remainedconstant for the duration of the study.

In contrast to 7 day old pups, 21 day old rats did not exhibit anincrease in threshold withdrawal force (e.g., analgesia) following EtOHadministration, as shown in FIG. 12B. Threshold withdrawal forcesdecreased as early as 4 hours and remained below baseline up to 72 hourspost-ethanol injection. Administration of both high (4 g/kg; starsymbols) and low (0.5 g/kg; closed circles) doses of 15% EtOH maximallydecreased mechanical thresholds at 6 hours post EtOH injection. For bothconcentrations, withdrawal thresholds remained consistently belowbaseline for up to 72 hours post injection. Baseline thresholdwithdrawal forces in P21 rats, as established using rats injected withsaline (open circles), remained constant for the duration of the study.

FIGS. 13A-13B shows the results of the thermal paw withdrawal latencytests for postnatal day 7 rats (FIG. 13A) and postnatal day 21 rats(FIG. 13B) treated with saline (open bars) with 4 g/kg 15% EtOH (dottedbars). The baseline thermal paw withdrawal latencies were similar in the7 day old and 21 day old rats, at values of 12.86±0.70 and 12.26±0.79 s,respectively. Thermal hyperalgesia as evidenced by a decrease in pawwithdrawal latency, was observed in the 7 day old rats at 6 hoursfollowing administration of 4 g/kg 15% EtOH (FIG. 13A). No change in pawwithdrawal latencies were observed in saline controls. In contrast tothe 7 day old rats, 21 day old rats administered 4 g/kg 15% EtOH did notexhibit a decrease in paw withdrawal latency as compared to salinecontrols over the entire time period examined (FIG. 13B). No change inpaw withdrawal latencies were observed in the saline-control 21 day oldpups.

To determine if mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia correlatedtemporally with decreases in EtOH concentrations and to determine if theobserved difference in response between 7 day old and 21 day old ratswas due to different EtOH pharmacokinetics, blood and spinal cord EtOHconcentrations following a single 4 g/kg 15% EtOH administration weremeasured. Blood and spinal cord ethanol levels were determine accordingto the procedure described in Example 4. The results are shown in FIGS.14A-14B.

FIG. 14A shows the ethanol level in blood for 7 day old (closed circles)and 21 day old rats (open circles) as a function of time post ethanolinjection. FIG. 14B is a similar plot for the ethanol concentration inthe spinal cord (reported as μg ethanol/mg tissue). For both 7 day oldand 21 day old rats, blood EtOH concentrations reached similar peaklevels at 30 minutes post-ethanol injection. At this timepoint, maximalblood EtOH concentrations were 5.91±0.46 μg/mL for 7 day old pups and5.67±0.60 μg/mL for 21 day old rats (FIG. 14A).

The elimination pharmacokinetics are summarized in Table 1. Eliminationof EtOH from blood exhibited an initial fast rate (early phase) followedby a slower rate (late phase). Both age groups exhibited dramaticallydecreased levels of EtOH by 3 hours post-ethanol injection with similarearly phase half lives, 1.9 and 1.7 h, respectively. 21 day old ratsexhibited a late phase half-life that extended 4 hours beyond that ofthe 7 day old rats and at 24 hours post-injection, a low concentrationof EtOH was still detectable. TABLE 1 T½ Early T½ Late Region Rat Age(hours) (hours) Blood  7 day old 1.9 18.1 21 day old 1.7 22.5 SpinalCord  7 day old 1.6 11.5 21 day old 1.5 11.7

Nociceptive afferent fibers terminate on neurons in the dorsal horn ofthe spinal cord, thus the concentration and kinetics of EtOH in spinalcord tissue was also examined. As shown in FIG. 14B and in Table 1, incontrast to blood, there were pronounced differences in EtOHconcentrations between 7 day old and 21 day old rats in spinal cord EtOHconcentration. Peak EtOH levels occurred at 30 minutes post injectionand decreased to minimal levels by 3 hours post-injection with similarearly phase half lives; 1.6 h for P7 rats and 1.5 h for P21 rats (FIG.14B, Table 1). The maximal EtOH concentration for 7 day old rats, 14.8μg/mg tissue, was higher than that for 21 day old rats, 11.4 μg/mgtissue, and remained higher throughout the early phase. Spinal cord EtOHdecreased to nearly undetectable levels at a faster rate than blood EtOHlevels as evidenced by a later-phase half-life that was 50% that of thehalf life for blood EtOH levels.

In order to investigate the roles of PKCε and PKCγ in mediating ethanolwithdrawal-induced pain, 7 day old and 21 day old rats wereintrathecally administered PKCε peptide inhibitor (εV1-2; SEQ ID NO:1v)or PKCγ peptide inhibitor (γV5-3; SEQ ID NO:2) 1 hour prior to thepredicted onset of withdrawal hyperalgesia. Control rats were injectedwith vehicle containing the Tat carrier protein (SEQ ID NO:3) to whichthe inhibitors were conjugated.

Results of mechanical allodynia testing are shown in FIGS. 15A-15D.FIGS. 15A-15B are bar graphs showing the threshold withdrawal force forvarious times post-ethanol injection (FIG. 15A) or post-saline injection(control, FIG. 15B) for 7 day old rat rats treated with εV1-2 (dottedbars), γV5-3 (vertical striped bars), or Tat alone (open bars). FIGS.15C-15D are similar bar graphs for 21 day old rat rats. With respect tothe 7 day old rats, administration of εPKC (dotted bars) and γPKC(vertical striped bars) peptide inhibitors attenuated mechanicalallodynia at both the 6 hour and 7 hour post-EtOH injection time points,as compared to Tat carrier-treated rats (open bars, FIG. 15A). At 8hours, all rats exhibited similar threshold withdrawal responses, whichwere significantly lower than pre-EtOH baseline levels regardless oftreatment group. The PKC isozyme-specific inhibitors had no effect onthreshold paw withdrawals in the absence of EtOH (FIG. 15B).

With respect to the 21 day rats, FIG. 15C shows that the PKCε inhibitor(dotted bars) slightly attenuated the response at 6 hours and 8 hourspost ethanol injection. The PKCγ inhibitor (vertical striped bars)prevented a decrease in threshold withdrawal response, and effectivelymaintained the withdrawal responses equal to pre-EtOH baseline levels(FIG. 15C, baseline) and to levels in which rats received saline (FIG.15D) rather than EtOH.

FIGS. 16A-16B show the results for the thermal hyperalgesia evaluation.FIG. 16A is a bar graph showing the paw withdrawal latency, in seconds,for 7 day old rat pups prior to ethanol injection (baseline) and at 5hours, 6 hours, and 8 hours post ethanol injection. At 4 hourspost-ethanol injection, a PKC inhibitor peptide, εPKC V1-2 (SEQ ID NO:1;dotted bars) or γPKC V5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2, vertical striped bars), or Tatcarrier peptide alone (SEQ ID NO:3, open bars) was administeredintrathecally (Example 4). FIG. 16B is a similar graph for animalstreated with saline, rather than ethanol.

FIG. 16A shows that administration of both εPKC and γPKC peptideinhibitors completely prevented thermal hyperalgesia in 7 day old ratrats. Rats that had received PKC-isozyme-specific inhibitors had pawwithdrawal latencies similar to those of saline-treated animals (FIG.16B).

To determine if EtOH alters the expression and cellular localization ofεPKC and γPKC, immunohistochemistry was performed on L4/5 dorsal rootganglion (DRG) and L4/5 lumbar spinal cord sections, as described inExample 4. Rat at postnatal days 7 and 21, treated with saline or 4 g/kg15% EtOH, were euthanized at 2, 4, or 6 hours post injection forisolation of the lumbar spinal cords. In 7 day old rats injected withsaline, a small percentage of cells stained positive for εPKC (data notshown). After a 2 hour exposure to EtOH, the percentage of cellsstaining positive for εPKC increased, as did staining density inindividual cells (data not shown). By 4 and 6 hours, the number of cellsstaining positive for εPKC returned to levels equivalent to salineinjected animals. In 21 day old rats injected with saline, more cellsstaining positive for εPKC, relative to the saline-treated 7 day oldpups, were observed. Treatment with EtOH did not result in an increasein the number of positive staining cells or in the staining intensitywithin positively stained cells (data not shown). εPKC staining appearedto be predominantly cytoplasmic.

In 7 day old rats, few γPKC positive neuronal somata are observed inlamina 11 of the lumbar spinal cord in control animals. γPKC staining inEtOH-injected animals did not differ from saline injected animals at 2hours and 4 hours post injection, but the number of somata stainingpositive for γPKC increased 4-fold above saline control levels by 6hours post injection (data not shown). In 21 day old rats, there wasabundant γPKC staining in the cell somata. While the number of γPKCpositive somata did not change following EtOH, γPKC staining intensityincreased by 2 hours post-EtOH injection and remained elevated at 6hours post injection (data not shown). In addition to increased stainingintensity, magnification of tissues demonstrated that γPKC insaline-treated pups was predominantly cytoplasmic; by 2 hours post-EtOHinjection, γPKC had translocated to the plasma membrane; by 6 hours,γPKC was once again predominantly cytoplasmic (data not shown).

III. UTILITY

Accordingly, administration of a peptide or other compound thatantagonizes the activity of εPKC or of γPKC is contemplated for managingwithdrawal from a habit-forming or addictive drug. In the studiesdescribed above, exemplary peptides specific for the c and y isozymes ofPKC were shown to prevent or attenuate symptoms associated withwithdrawal from an addictive drug.

It will be appreciated that the peptides identified herein as SEQ IDNO:1 and SEQ ID NO:2 are merely exemplary, and modifications, fragmentsand derivatives, as well as other peptides derived from the εPKCsequence that have an activity similar to that demonstrated herein, arecontemplated. Suitable modifications, such as conservative amino acidsubstitutions, are readily determined by those of skill in the art.Exemplary modifications for SEQ ID NO:2 (RLVLAS) include the followingchanges shown in lower case: kLVLAS (SEQ ID NO:4); RLVLgS (SEQ ID NO:5);RLVLpS (SEQ ID NO:6); RLVLnS (SEQ ID NO:7), and any combination of theabove. Other modifications include changes of one or two L to I or V,such as RiVLAS (SEQ ID NO:8); RLViAS (SEQ ID NO:9); or RiViAS (SEQ IDNO:10). Also, L and V can be changed to V, L, I, R, and/or D, as inRLiLAS (SEQ ID NO:11), RLdLAS (SEQ ID NO:12), and RidLAS (SEQ ID NO:13)or RridAS (SEQ ID NO:14). Any modification that retain the desiredactivity are suitable. Thus, in all of the exemplary fragments recitedabove, conservative modifications and other modifications that do notappreciably alter the activity can be made and fall within thecontemplated peptides.

It will be appreciated that the peptides can be used in native form ormodified by conjugation to a carrier. In native form, the peptide can beformulated as needed to facilitate its transport into a cell. Suitableformulations for cell permeation are known in the art and include, forexample, micelles, liposomes (charged and uncharged), and lipophilicmedia. When linked to a carrier, one of skill can select from a varietyof peptide carriers known in the art. In addition to the Tat carrierused in the studies described above, carriers based on DrosophilaAntennapedia homeodomain (SEQ ID NO:15; Theodore, L., et al. J.Neurosci. 15:7158 (1995); Johnson, J. A., et al., Circ. Res. 79:1086(1996b)), where the PKC peptide is cross-linked via an N-terminalCys-Cys bond to the Antennapedia carrier, are suitable. Polyarginine isanother exemplary carrier peptide (Mitchell et al., J. Peptide Res.,56:318-325 (2000); Rolhbard et al., Nature Med., 6:1253-1257 (2000)).

All peptides described herein can be prepared by chemical synthesisusing either automated or manual solid phase synthetic technologies,known in the art. The peptides can also be prepared recombinantly, usingtechniques known in the art.

The peptides are prepared for administration by combining with apharmaceutically-acceptable carrier or diluent. Thus, a further aspectof the invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a γPKCpeptide or an εPKC peptide in a dosage form suitable for administrationto a subject in need of pain management. Exemplary dosage forms include,but are not limited to, the peptides formulated in pharmaceuticalcarriers such as starch, lactose, talc, magnesium stearate, aqueoussolutions, oil-water emulsions, and the like. Dosage forms suitable forinjection by any route, including but not limited to intrathecal,intravenous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, can beprepared using pharmaceutical carriers such as buffered-aqueous ornon-aqueous media. The peptides can be locally administered near a siteof inflammation or peripheral nerve damage, by, for example, topicalapplication, dermal or transdermal administration, or intradermalinjection. Mucosal delivery is also contemplated, where the peptides areformulated for sublingual, vaginal, intranasal, or ocular delivery. Itwill be appreciated that certain forms of administration can achieve aninitial localized site of delivery that becomes more widespread overtime. For example, a buccal patch or a vaginal suppository provides aninitially localized delivery at the site of application. Over time, thepeptides travel in the body fluids (lymph, blood) from the site ofdelivery to provide a more widespread area of action. The extent ofdelivery can be controlled via selection of formulation and route ofadministration, as known to those of skill in the pharmaceuticalformulation arts.

The amount of the peptide in the composition can be varied so that asuitable dose is obtained and an effective analgesic effect is achieved.The dosage will depend on a number of factors such as the route ofadministration, the duration of treatment, the size and physicalcondition of the patient, the potency of the peptide and the patient'sresponse. Effective amounts of the peptide can be estimated by testingthe peptide in one or more the pain models described herein.

The peptides can be administered as needed, hourly, several times perday, daily, or as often as the person experiencing the pain or thatperson's physician deems appropriate. The peptides can be administeredprophylactically, in anticipation of pain, or can be administered asneeded prior to or during an acute episode of pain. The peptides can beadministered on an on-going basis for management of chronic pain, or canbe administered on a short term basis prior to after an episode of pain,for example, prior to and/or after surgery.

The invention further contemplates a kit comprising components for auser to employ in managing the symptoms of withdrawal from an addictiveagent. The user may be a health care provider, such as a nurse or adoctor, caring for a patient being treated with an addictive agent orbeing treated for abuse of an addictive agent. The user can also be theperson taking an addictive agent whether or not clinical addiction hasoccurred.

The kits includes (i) at least one container containing a peptide havingisozyme-specific inhibitory activity for γPKC and/or εPCK; and (ii)instructions for use. In one embodiment, the kit is comprised of a firstcontainer containing a peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitoryactivity for εPKC, such as the peptide identified herein by SEQ ID NO:1or any of the modifications discussed above.

The kit can also include a second container containing a peptide havingisozyme-specific inhibitory activity for γPKC, such as the peptideidentified herein by SEQ ID NO:2 or any of the modifications discussedabove. Kits containing two vials, one containing an ε-specific PKCpeptide, the other containing a γ-specific isozyme peptide, will includeinstructions to direct a user to administer the peptide havingisozyme-specific inhibitory activity for εPKC prior to or concurrentwith administration of an addictive agent. The user is furtherinstructed to administer the peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitoryactivity for γPKC after administration of an addictive agent.

The peptides in the kit can be provided ready for use or in a formrequiring addition of a sterile fluid, such as saline. Naturally, if asterile fluid is required, the kit could include a quantity of thenecessary fluid and a syringe, if needed for injection. Peptidesformulated ready for use intends dosage forms for single or multiple usein any of the forms discussed above for any route of administration.

The invention also contemplates a therapeutic regimen for managingwithdrawal symptoms in neonates. The studies described here employedpostnatal day 7 rats, which correspond developmentally to newborn humaninfants, and postnatal day 21 rats, which developmentally correspond toa human preschool age child (Fitzgerald and Anand, Pain Management inInfants, Children and Adolescents (Schetchter et al., Eds.), pp 11-32.Baltimore, Md., Williams and Williams, 1993). Human infants areroutinely treated with opiods for pain relief and for sedation duringmechanical ventilation. Many of these infants demonstrate symptoms ofneonatal abstinance syndrome, a developmentally specific equivalent ofopiate withdrawal (Norton, S., Neonatal Netw., 7:25-28 (1988)). From thedata described herein on postnatal day 7 rats, morphine exposureproduced an early phase of primary afferent sensitization dependent upontranslocation of εPKC, followed by a later phase involving spinalsensitization mediated by γPKC-containing neurons within the spinalcord. This data suggests a temporal therapy for treatment of opiatetolerance and withdrawal in the human neonatal population, byadministering a peptide having εPKC specific activity during the earlyphase of sensitization, and, if desired, a peptide having γPKC specificactivity during later phases of sensitization.

From the foregoing, it can be seen how various objects and features ofthe invention are met. Methods for attenuating withdrawal symptomsassociated with cessation of use of an addictive agent are provided.Most generally, the method includes administering to a subject,typically a mammal (especially human), a peptide having isozyme specificactivity for εPKC or for γPKC. In one embodiment of the method, bothpeptides are administered in a temporal fashion, where the peptidehaving specific activity for εPKC isozyme is administered prior to orconcurrent with administration of the addictive agent. A peptide havingspecific activity for the γPKC isozyme is administered after theaddictive agent is given to the subject. “After” intends administrationof the γPKC isozyme specific peptide immediately administration of theaddictive agent or minutes or hours after administration of theaddictive agent.

IV. EXAMPLES

The following example further illustrates the invention described hereinand is in no way intended to limit the scope of the invention.

Materials and Methods

All peptides were synthesized at Stanford's Protein and Nuclei Acidfacility and conjugated to Tat, amino acids 47-57 (SEQ ID NO:3) via acysteine-cysteine bond at their N termini. The εPKC antagonist, εV1-2(SEQ ID NO:1) and the γPKC antagonist, γV5-3 (SEQ ID NO:2) were usedat >90% purity.

Example 1 In Vitro Measurement of sVRP

Spinal cords from 4-7 day old rats (Charles River Laboratories) wereremoved and arranged for electrophysiological recording of the slowventral root potentials (sVRP) (Woodley S. J., et al., Brain Res.,559:17-21 (1991). Briefly, pups were decapitated under halothaneanesthesia and the spinal cord removed to an oxygenated artificialcerebrospinal fluid solution. A suction stimulating electrode was placedon a lumbar dorsal root and a suction recording electrode on thecorresponding ipsilateral ventral root. Square wave stimuli 0.2 ms induration were administered at a constant frequency of {fraction (1/50)}seconds throughout the experiment. Test agents were applied and theresponses were recorded, digitized, and area under the curve measured.

After a baseline reading of the sVRP, morphine (200 nM) was applied tothe isolated spinal cords. The sVRP was again recorded to characterizethe response to morphine. Naloxone (200 nM) was then applied and thesVRPs recorded. The results are shown in FIGS. 1A-1D.

FIGS. 2A-2D show the results after application of non-specific PKCantagonist, GF109203X (1.2 μM), and of an inhibitor specific toCa++-dependent PKC isoforms, Go6976 (1 μM).

FIGS. 3A-3B show the results after application of the εPCK antagonist(εV1-2; SEQ ID NO:1, 2 nM), conjugated to a peptide carrier (Tat; SEQ IDNO:3) and the Tat peptide alone (2 nM; SEQ ID NO:3). FIGS. 3C-3D showthe results after application of γPKC (γV5-3; SEQ ID NO:2, 4 nM)conjugated to a peptide carrier (Tat; SEQ ID NO:3) and of the Tatpeptide alone (4 nm; SEQ ID NO:3).

Example 2 In Vivo Mechanical Threshold and Thermal Paw WithdrawalStudies

Postnatal day 7 Sprague-Dawley rats (Charles River Laboratories) of bothsexes were used. For all behavioural experiments rats were maintained atnesting temperature with overhead heatlamps.

To measure mechanical thresholds, rats were placed on an elevated wiremesh (2 mm openings). Von Frey hairs (Stoelting Co., WoodDale, Ill.,USA) were used to elicit a cutaneous flexion withdrawal response asdescribed by Fitzgerald et al. (Fitzgerald M., et al., PAIN MANAGEMENTIN INFANTS, CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS; Schetchter and Yaster, Eds., pp11-32, Williams and Williams (Baltimore, Md.) (1993). Von Frey hairs ofincreasing intensity were applied three times to the plantar surface ofthe left hind paw until a paw withdrawal was elicited. The lowestintensity Von Frey hair required to produce a withdrawal reflex wasrecorded as the response threshold to a low-intensity mechanicalstimulus.

Thermal paw withdrawal latencies were measured using the Ugo BasilePlantar Testing apparatus (Stoelting Co., WoodDale, Ill., USA). Briefly,postnatal day 7 rats were placed under inverted Plexiglas enclosures andthe plantar surface of the left hindpaw was heated from below with theIR intensity of the lamp set at 30. Two baseline thermal responselatency measures were collected prior to morphine administration with acut-off of 20 seconds enlisted to prevent tissue damage.

Postnatal day 7 rats were administered 1 mg/kg morphine sulfate (Sigma)subcutaneously in 50 μl saline. Mechanical thresholds were measured 15minutes later to establish analgesia. Rats were returned to their dam.At 30 or 120 minutes post morphine, rats were administered 0.25 mg/kgnaloxone (Sigma) subcutaneously in 50 μl saline. Mechanical thresholdsand thermal paw withdrawal latencies were measured in 10 minuteintervals. Tat conjugated peptide inhibitors specific to the ε (εV1-2;SEQ ID NO:1, 10 μM) and γ (γV3-5; SEQ ID NO:2, 10 μM) isoforms of PKC,Tat carrier (10 μM), or saline were administered in 5 μl volumesintrathecally via direct lumbar puncture using a sterile 29 gauge 3/10cc insulin syringe in rats lightly anesthetized with halothane. To allowfor complete recovery from anesthetic, animals were administeredpeptides or control solutions 30 minutes prior to naloxone. The resultsare shown in FIGS. 4A-4B and 5B-5C.

For natural withdrawal studies, rats were administered morphine (1mg/kg) followed 2.5 hours later by εV1-2 (10 μM), γV3-5 (10 μM), Tatcarrier (10 μM), or saline. Mechanical thresholds and thermal pawwithdrawal latencies were examined at 3, 4, 5, and 6 hourspost-morphine. The results are shown in FIGS. 6B-6C.

An unpaired T-test was used to determine the significance ofpost-naloxone measures from baseline measures. Significance betweentreatment groups for PKC inhibitor studies both in vivo and in vitro wasdetermined by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by apost-hoc Bonferroni analysis. P-values<0.05 were considered significant.All statistical analysis was done with GraphPad Prism version 3.02.

Example 3 Effect of γPKC Peptides on Alcohol WithdrawalHyperresponsiveness in Vitro

Sprague-Dawley rats at postnatal day 7-10 were anesthetized withhalothane, decapitated, and the spinal cords were quickly removed.Slices 350 mm thick were sectioned from the lumbar region. Whole cellvoltage clamp recordings were made from visually-identified motorneurons using infrared video microscopy, a 60× water immersion lens, anda MultiClamp 700A patch clamp amplifier. Cells were held at a holdingpotential of −60 mV in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) containingbicuculline methiodide (10 mM), strychnine (5 mM), and tetrodotoxin (0.5mM). Postsynaptic currents were evoked by direct pressure application of2 mM N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) from a pipette positioned near therecorded cell at 1-2 min intervals, as illustrated in FIG. 7A. The areaof evoked currents during and following 100 mM ethanol (EtOH)application was measured and normalized to the average baseline currentarea during the 10 minutes preceding EtOH application. Data areexpressed as mean ±SEM. Statistical significance was determined byone-way ANOVA followed by Dunn's or Tukey's multiple comparison testwith significance set at p<0.05.

Fluorescence immunocytochemical studies were performed on spinal cordsections (30 mm) from control slices (perfused with ACSF for 70 minutes)and EtOH treated slices (perfused with ACSF for 30 minutes followed by20 min 100 mM EtOH and 20 min wash with ACSF). The sections wereincubated with a rabbit anti-PKCg polyclonal antibody (1:500) overnightat 4° C. In some cord sections, a mouse anti-neuronal nuclei monoclonalantibody (NeuN, 1:750) was added to identify neurons. After severalwashes with ACSF, the sections were labeled for 2 hours at roomtemperature with fluorescein-labeled secondary antibodies (1:500).Double immunofluorescence was assessed with a laser confocal microscope.

Results are shown in FIGS. 7-11.

Example 4 Effect of γPKC and εPKC Peptides on Alcohol Withdrawal-InducedAllodynia and Hyperalgesia in Vivo

1. Animals

Sprague-Dawley rats (Charles River, Mass.) were housed with dams andwere exposed to a 12/12 light/dark cycle with free access to food andwater. Unless otherwise stated, experiments were performed on 7-day oldmale and female pups (14-17g) or on 21-day old male animals (45-55 g). 7day-old pups were maintained at nest temperature by overhead heat lampsfor both mechanical and thermal testing.

7 day-old rat pups were intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected with a singledose of 1 g/kg or 4 g/kg 15% EtOH or with saline. 21 day-old rat pupswere i.p. injected with 0.5 g/kg or 4 g/kg 15% EtOH or with saline.

2. Allodynia and Hyperalgesia Testing

Mechanical allodynia testing was performed as follows. Each rat, undernon-restrained conditions, was placed singly in a Plexiglass cage uponan elevated aluminum screen surface with 1 mm mesh openings. 21-day oldanimals were previously acclimated to this environment and to theexperimenter. 7 day-old and 21-day old pups were subjected to threetactile stimulations on the hind paw with 0.04 g to 1.4 g or with 0.16to 6 g von Frey filaments, respectively (Stoelting Co., Wood Dale,Ill.). The threshold value for pain was defined as the lifting of thepaw upon all three stimulations as previously described (Fitzgerald M.,et al., PAIN MANAGEMENT IN INFANTS, CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS; Schetchterand Yaster, Eds., pp 11-32, Williams and Williams (Baltimore, Md.)(1993). Baseline testing in 7 day-old pups was conducted prior to EtOHtreatment and was subsequently measured every hour up to 6 hours, and at8, 10, 12, and 24 hours post injection. Baseline testing in 21 day-oldpups was conducted as above and at every 2 hours up to 8 hours postinjection, and at 24, 48, and 72 hours post ethanol injection. Allodyniawas defined as a threshold force below the threshold force required toelicit a response in saline controls.

Thermal hyperalgesia testing was performed as follows. Thermal pawwithdrawal latencies were measured using the Ugo Basile Plantar Testingapparatus (Stoelting Co., WoodDale, Ill., USA). Briefly, postnatal day 7or 21 rats were placed under inverted Plexiglas enclosures and theplantar surface of the hindpaw was heated from below with the IRintensity of the lamp set at 30 or 40, respectively. Three baselinethermal response latency measures were collected prior to EtOHadministration with a cut-off of 20 seconds enlisted to prevent tissuedamage. Following EtOH administration, 2 readings separated by 10minutes were taken every 2 hours up to 8 hours and then again at 24hours for each pup. Reported paw withdrawal latencies represent the meanof individual measurements.

Results are shown in FIGS. 12A-12B and FIGS. 13A-13B.

To determine the involvement of εPKC and γPKC in withdrawal-inducedmechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, 7 day old and 21 day oldrats were administered inhibitor peptides 5 hours (7 day old pups) or 4hours (21 day old pups) following a single dose of 4 g/kg 15% EtOH orsaline (i.p.). For thermal testing, 7 day old pups received inhibitorpeptides at 4 hours post-EtOH administration. Intrathecal peptide drugdelivery was via direct lumbar puncture under halothane anesthesia with5 μL (7 day old pups) or 10 μL (21 day old pups) of 20 μM PKCε (εV1-2;SEQ ID NO:1) or PKCγ (γV5-3; SEQ ID NO:2) inhibitor peptide linked to aTat protein carrier (SEQ ID NO:3). PKC isozyme-specific inhibitors wereadministered 1 hour prior to the previously determined time for onset ofhyperalgesia/allodynia. Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesiatesting were performed as stated above with the experimenter blinded topeptide drug treatment. Results are shown in FIGS. 15A-15D and 16A-16B.

3. Determination of Blood and Spinal Cord Ethanol Levels

7 day old and 21 day old rat pups were administered 4 g/kg of 15% EtOH(i.p.) according to the acute procedure described above. Animals weredeeply anesthetized at various times following injection and blood wascollected into heparin-containing syringes via direct cardiac puncture.Spinal cord and blood were removed and stored in microfuge tubes at −80°C. until analysis. At the time of analysis, tissue was homogenized in 1μL 6.25% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid (TCA)/mg of tissue using a Polytron®tissue homogenizer for 5 seconds. An aliquot of whole blood (100 μL) wasadded to 900 μL TCA and vortexed. Tissue and blood samples werecentrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 5 minutes at room temperature and EtOHcontent was determined using a colorimetric assay (Sigma Diagnostics,St. Louis) adapted for a 96-well format according to manufacturer'sinstructions. Results are shown in FIGS. 14A-14B.

4. Immunohistochemistry

Animals administered a single dose of 4 g/kg 15% EtOH or saline (i.p.)were deeply anesthetized with halothane and euthanized at 2, 4, or 6hours post injection by transcardiac perfusion (phosphate-bufferedsaline wash, followed by 4% formaldehyde in PBS, pH 7.4). Followingperfusion, lumbar spinal cord and L4/L5 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) wereisolated and post-fixed for 3 hours in 4% formaldehyde solution followedby cryoprotection in 30% sucrose/PBS at 4° C. Sections werefreeze-mounted in OCT-embedding medium on cork blocks and stored at −80°C. until analysis. For spinal cord sections, free-floatingimmunohistochemistry was performed on 30 μm L4-L5 spinal sections.Dorsal root ganglia were cut on a cryostat at 10 μm and slide mounted.Slides were heated overnight at 32° C. Immunohistochemistry wasperformed utilizing an avidin-biotin complex (ABC) technique aspreviously described (Sweitzer et al., Brain Res., 829(1-2):209-221(1999)). Rabbit polyclonal antibodies to γPKC (1:500 from Santa Cruz) orεPKC (1:1,000 from Santa Cruz) were used. Immunohistochemistry wasscored blinded to experimental conditions.

For both spinal cord tissues and DRG, densitometry using ImageJ softwarewas performed on at least three sections from each of three individualanimals.

5. Statistics

Significant differences between treatment groups and saline controlswere demonstrated by one-way analysis of variance. The medians of groupswere compared by the post-hoc test of Newman-Keuls. Significantdifferences between treatment groups and baseline were determined usinga nonparametric t-est. All statistics were performed using GraphPadPrizm, version 3.0 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, Calif.).

Although the invention has been described with respect to particularembodiments, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art thatvarious changes and modifications can be made without departing from theinvention.

1. A method for alleviating symptoms associated with withdrawal from anarcotic, comprising; administering a peptide having isozyme-specificinhibitory activity for εPKC.
 2. The method according to claim 1,wherein said administering comprises administering the peptide prior to,during, or subsequent to delivery of the habit-forming drug.
 3. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein said administering comprisesadministering a peptide having a sequence identified herein as SEQ IDNO:1.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein said administeringcomprises administering a peptide formulated for intracellular delivery.5. The method according to claim 4, wherein said peptide is formulatedfor intracellular delivery by conjugation to a carrier peptide.
 6. Themethod according to claim 5, wherein said peptide is conjugated at itsN-terminus to a carrier selected from the group consisting of peptidesidentified as SEQ ID NO:3 and polyarginine.
 7. The method according toclaim 1, wherein said narcotic is an opiate or an opioid.
 8. A methodfor alleviating symptoms associated with withdrawal from nicotine,comprising; administering a peptide having isozyme-specific inhibitoryactivity for εPKC.
 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein saidadministering comprises administering the peptide prior to, during, orsubsequent to delivery of the habit-forming drug.
 10. The methodaccording to claim 8, wherein said administering comprises administeringa peptide having a sequence identified herein as SEQ ID NO:1.
 11. Themethod according to claim 8, wherein said administering comprisesadministering a peptide formulated for intracellular delivery.
 12. Themethod according to claim 11, wherein said peptide is formulated forintracellular delivery by conjugation to a carrier peptide.
 13. Themethod according to claim 12, wherein said peptide is conjugated at itsN-terminus to a carrier selected from the group consisting of peptidesidentified as SEQ ID NO:3 and polyarginine.
 14. A method for alleviatingsymptoms associated with withdrawal from a habit-forming drug other thanalcohol, comprising; administering a peptide having isozyme-specificinhibitory activity for εPKC.
 15. The method according to claim 14,wherein said administering comprises administering the peptide prior to,during, or subsequent to delivery of the habit-forming drug.
 16. Themethod according to claim 14, wherein said administering comprisesadministering a peptide having a sequence identified herein as SEQ IDNO:1.
 17. The method according to claim 14, wherein said administeringcomprises administering a peptide formulated for intracellular delivery.18. The method according to claim 17, wherein said peptide is formulatedfor intracellular delivery by conjugation to a carrier peptide.
 19. Themethod according to claim 15, wherein said peptide is conjugated at itsN-terminus to a carrier selected from the group consisting of peptidesidentified as SEQ ID NO:3 and polyarginine.